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Irish Nortons
O'Naughton

Tradition says the Naughtons of Ireland are decended from Colla da Chrioch (or Facrioch), meaning Colla of the Two Countries (Ireland and Scotland), who was the first King of Ulster after its conquest in the 4th Century by him and his two brothers--known in Irish history as the Three Collas. He founded the Kingdom of Orghialla (or Oriel, Uriel), and his clan ruled over that kingdom--comprising the modern counties of Monaghan, Armagh, and part of Louth--down to the 12th Century.

About 457 A.D., Colla de Chrioch's great-great-grandson and a direct ancestor of the Naughton line, Maine Mor (Maine the Great), decided to establish his own kingdom by seizing an extensive area in southwestern Connaught Province held by the pre-Celtic tribe of Firbolgs. Specifically, the region extended on the north to the River Shannon above Lough (Lake) Ree in County Roscommon, on the south into County Offaly, westward to Lough Graney in County Clare, back north to include all of eastern County Galway to the River Suck at Ballymoe and east across County Roscommon to the River Shannon.

DNA testing supports this traditional history.
Although we need more tests, our early results show a match with Clan Colla for a Norton from Galway 1850. All other Norton's of Irish decent fall into one family, possibly the native Irish Firbolgs conquered by Colla de Chrioch in 457 A.D.
Here is a link to the Clan Coll info:
Here is a link to the DNA test for the Norton Clan Colla
Here is a link to the DNA Irish Nortons.

Norton/Naughton DNA Results

A special note of thanks goes to Michael Naughton of Aurora, Colorado, whose generous sharing of his own extensive research and collection of resource material on the Naughton line provided crucial information for this narrative. [NOTE: You will notice spelling variations as we quote various authors, not only of the surname Naughton--originally Ua Neachtain or O'Neachtain in Gaelic but also spelled Naghten, Naughtan, Naughten, Naughtin, Nocton, Nattan, McNaughton, Norton and other variations--but also of Hy-Many (spelled Ui-Maine, Hi-Maine, Hi-Many, etc.), Maonmagh (also spelled Maenmagh, Maonmaighe, Magh Maoin, Monivea, etc.) and other variations. I used what seemed to be the more commonly used spelling. Incidentally, Irish friends tell me that, contrary to the silent "gh" commonly heard in the United States, "Naughton" is pronounced with a guttural "g" or "c" in Ireland, similar to "Nacton." ]

The Arrival of the Laigin in Ireland

The Naughton family line in Ireland traces itself back some two thousand years to ancient settlers who arrived before the Gaels themselves, according to Thomas Cairney's Clans and Families of Ireland and Scotland. Cairney tells us that the direct ancestors of the Naughtons belonged to the ancient Celtic Laigin or Dumnonii ethno-tribal group that moved from the western region of Normandy sometime during the first century B.C. as the Romans increased their pressure on Gaul. (Other sources claim that they may have crossed over as early as 300 B.C..) The Laigin settled first in southern Britain and then in Ireland, where they gave their name to the southeastern province of Leinster. Over time, the Laigin became overlords of the western province of Connaught (or Connacht), as well as of southeastern and central regions, later spreading to other parts.

Of the various family groupings of the Laigin, the ancestors of O'Neachtain were members of the royal elite, tracing descent from Cormac Ulfhada, High King of Ireland in the 3th Century--whose own line traces back through Heremon to Milesius, King of Spain--and Colla da Chrioch, grandson of Updar, King of Scotland. Colla da Chrioch (or Facrioch), meaning Colla of the Two Countries (Ireland and Scotland), was the first King of Ulster after its conquest in the 4th Century by him and his two brothers--known in Irish history as the Three Collas. He founded the Kingdom of Orghialla (or Oriel, Uriel), and his clan ruled over that kingdom--comprising the modern counties of Monaghan, Armagh, and part of Louth--down to the 12th Century. Many noble families of Ulster descended from this clan.

Naughton Ancestors Move to Western Ireland

About 457 A.D., Colla de Chrioch's great-great-grandson and a direct ancestor of the Naughton line, Maine Mor (Maine the Great), decided to establish his own kingdom by seizing an extensive area in southwestern Connaught Province held by the pre-Celtic tribe of Firbolgs. Specifically, the region extended on the north to the River Shannon above Lough (Lake) Ree in County Roscommon, on the south into County Offaly, westward to Lough Graney in County Clare, back north to include all of eastern County Galway to the River Suck at Ballymoe and east across County Roscommon to the River Shannon. (Roughly represented on the map.)

The Irish historian John O'Dugan described the expanse of the kingdom in his "Topographical Poems":

"The great third of Connacht is that plain
Of Hi-Maine of great assemblies
Extending from the Shannon of fairy flood
To Cnoc Madha: it is no small kingdom."

The area and kingdom became known as Ui Maine or Hy-Many, meaning the land possessed by the descendants of Maine.

Maine Mor ruled his kingdom for some fifty years, and his eldest son, Bresal, ruled for another thirty years. Bresal's eldest son, Fiachra Finn, assumed the throne upon his father's death and ruled for 17 years. He was described in a 13th Century poem as "a tower in conflict and battle." Under normal conditions, his eldest son, Amlaibh--the direct ancestor of the O'Neachtains (Naughtons)--would have ascended to the throne of Hy-Many. But his father, Fiachra Finn, was murdered by Fiachra Finn's youngest brother, Maine Mall, and another brother, Conall, assumed the throne--and, over time, the ruling line within Hy-Many was established among the O'Kelly line of the family.

The O'Neachtain Territory of Maonmagh

Despite losing the kingship, the descendants of Amlaibh were recognized as the senior branch of Hy-Many, and they ruled extensive plains in southern Galway surrounding Loughrea, known as Maonmagh. That line was known as the Hy-Fiachrach Finn. According to a history of the O'Neachtain/O'Naghten family written in 1788 by Edmond O'Naghten, the ancestor of the original O'Neachtain built the town of Loughrea. As he described it, "they erected a noble palace and church, and fortified the place with several strong Castles and Walls, one of which Castles through which was one of the gates of the town and called Latimor Castle and Gate O'Naghten appropriated to his own use and defense, and had his Arms cut in stone over the gate, with an inscription of the time it was erected." The O'Neachtains reportedly also built Rae Roddy Castle, a stone fortress not far from Loughrea.

Because of their ranking status, John O'Donovan points out in his Tribes and Customs of the Hy-Many, the ancestors of the O'Neachtain were recognized as the hereditary door-keepers of the Kings of Connaught and as the chief commanders of the Cavalry of Hy-Many. O'Donovan also tells us that the High King of Ireland "gives a subsidy to the chiefs of Hy-Fiachrach Finn more than [or in preference to] the king of Hy-Many."

About 650 A.D., the Hi-Fiachrach Finn divided into two family groupings, later coming to be known as the O'Neachtains and the O'Mullallys, as surnames began to be used in the beginning of the 10th Century. O'Donovan makes it clear that the O'Mullallys were "next to O'Naghten in point of seniority of descent." Denis O'Mullally, in his History of the O'Mullally and Lally Clann, similarly recognizes the seniority of the O'Neachtains:

"...allow us to give honor where it is due...the O'Mullallys...are junior to the O'Neachtains but only to them alone in all Hi-Maine and all Connacht of those of Heremonian descent. All honor to the O'Neachtains."

John O'Dugan, the Irish historical poet of the 14th century, described the two families:

"The chiefs of Maonmagh the champions,
Whose estate is the fertile plain,
Two who defend that district
Are O'Naghten and O'Mulally;
Their warfare is heavy in battles;
The land is theirs as far as Ui Fiachra."

John O'Hart, in his Irish Pedigrees, lists descendants Fiachrach Finn (with some variations in spelling) as follows:

1. Fiachra Fionn
2. Amhailgadh, his son
3. Congal, his son
4. Inleigh, his son
5. Tuathal, his son
6. Oioll, his son
7. Aeneas, his son (who had a brother, Maoleala--who began the O'Mullally line)
8. Maolceir, his son
9. Neachtan, his son (whose name provided the surname to the O'Neachtain line)
10. Aodh (or Hugh), his son
11. Fiontain, his son
12. Fearballach, his son
13. Fergus Fionn, his son
14. Connor Catha Brian (also known as Connor), his son, who fought with King Brian Boru at the Battle of Clontarf in 1014 and was the first to assume the surname O'Neachtain. He was identified as Number 105 in descent within the Hy-Many pedigree.

Connor Catha Brian O'Neachtain and the Battle of Clontarf

As commanders of the Cavalry of the Hy Maine, the O'Neachtains took part in the many battles against rivals for territory or control. The most important battle, by far, was the Battle of Clontarf, in which the High King of Ireland, Brian Boru, fought rival Irish forces whose Viking allies sought to overthrow Boru and complete their conquest of Ireland. The Vikings gathered a sizable invasion force and set sail for Dublin.

Brian Boru, who gave his name to the O'Brien family, was famous in Irish history for becoming king of all Ireland--at least for a time--by defeating his main rival in the O'Neill clan who controlled northern Ireland and part of the south. An agreement between the two kings in 997 left Boru in charge of Connaught, southern Ireland and eastern Ireland, including Dublin. By 1011, after a series of battles, he was in effective control of all Ireland. But his opponents, joined by Viking forces, challenged Boru at Clontarf, on the coast just north of Dublin, on Good Friday, April 23, 1014.

Brian Boru gathered his own allied clans in Ireland, as well as friendly Viking settlers, to defend against the foreign force. Among those who responded were the Hy-Many forces gathered by the clan leader, O'Kelly. One of those who fought with Brian Boru's forces was Connor Catha Brian, the direct ancestor of the Naughton family.

The battle was fierce, with many killed on both sides. Among those dead were Brian Boru himself, the O'Kelly chieftain of Hy-Many and his son, and many others of Hy-Many. But Connor survived, and the forces of Brian Boru forced the Vikings to flee, ending forever their effort to conquer Ireland. Some historians claim that this particular battle prevented the Vikings from continuing their expansion across northern Europe and changed the course of European history.

Connor Catha Brian was famous both for having supported Brian Boru in the defense against the Vikings and for being the first to take on the family surname. He named his line after his own great-great-great-grandfather, 'Neachtain." From then on, the family line was known by the Galeic surname O'Neachtain, later modified to O'Naghten and Naughton.

The Meaning of "O'Neachtain"

We are told that the name "Neachtain" had several possible translations from ancient Gaelic: Edmond O'Naghten in writing his 1788 account of the family history, saw it as meaning "a brave or bold greatness of spirit." In his words:

"The name of O'Neachtain is one of the most Celtick and Antient in Irish History. It retains the Expresisve Idyom of that renowned Language, the word (Neach) signifiying a particular greatness of Spirit or Soul, and the word (Tain) Powerfull and Brave."

John O'Hart, in Irish Pedigrees, gives a similar meaning: "a bold and daring spirit." However, Woulfe, in Irish Names and Surnames, translates it as meaning "bright," "pure," and that O'Neachtain meant "the descendant of the upright one"; and a third, given by John Rooney in A Genealogical History of Irish Families, claimed that it meant "neutral" or "fair"--"the descendant of the fair one."

After noting that Connor--Number 105 in descent in the Hy-Many pedigree--was the first to assume the surname O'Neachtain, John O'Hart continued his listing of his descendants:

106. Amhailgadh (Awly), Connor's son
107. Awly Oge, his son
108. Melachlin, his son
109. Teigh, of Loughrea, his son
110. Hugh, his son
111. Connor, his son
112. Melachlin, his son
113. Awly, his son
114. Donall, his son
115, Creachmhoill, his son
116. Cathal, his son
117. Awly, his son
118. Giollachrioad, his son
119. Roger, his son
120. Giolla (William), his son
(More below.)

The Anglo-Norman Invasion

It is not clear which of the O'Neachtains was ruling Maonmagh when the Anglo-Norman invasion occurred in 1169. But it was a disastrous event that changed the course of Irish history as well as that of the O'Neachtains. During the initial years of the Anglo-Norman invasion, we are told that most local chieftains were able to retain their Galway properties, since Connaught was not the initial area of focus of the Anglo-Normans. Also helping was the fact that the Connaught chieftains recognized England's King Henry II under the 1175 Treaty of Windsor and agreed to pay tithes to him.

But King Henry had to reward English nobles who supported his invasion of Ireland, and he did this by bestowing Irish baronies on them. This resulted in pushing many Irish families off their traditional lands and forcing them into becoming tenants of English gentry. Maonmagh was no exception.

We know that William de Burgh invaded Connaught, including Maonmagh, about 1200, and that his son, Richard de Burgh, with English forces, passed through Maonmagh again in 1235, committing "great plunder." The de Burgh (Burke) family came to be the leading English conqueror and landowner of Connaught. Edmond O'Naghten tells us that Loughrea, where the O'Neachtains lived, was assaulted by...

"Don Burgo...and though obstinately defended and with unparalleled bravery, yet the garrison being reduced to the most miserable want of provisions was obliged to capitulate, and...being obliged to give up everything they had in and about Loughrea to the Conqueror."

O'Naghten added that the O'Naghten Arms were "still remaining over Latimor gate until within this last (17th) century." (See below for more on the O'Naghten Coat of Arms.)

Subsequently, Meyler Bermingham, son of the English Baron of Dudley, who had served as third in command of the first expedition into Ireland led by Richard de Clare "Strongbow," was rewarded by being made Lord Baron of Athenry, north of Loughrea but which most likely included most if not all of Maonmagh. The Irish landowners were simply dispossessed of their properties, but some were given the choice of remaining as tenants of Lord Bermingham or leaving. We know, for example, that the O'Mullallys moved to the area of Tuam and remained as tenants of Lord Bermingham at the Castle of Tolendal. They stayed there until the late 1600s, when family members--also known by the name Lally--moved to France and distinguished themselves in the French Army, ultimately gaining the title of Count Lally de Tolendal.

The O'Neachtains chose to leave Maonmagh and seek another part of Hy-Many where they could remain independent of the Anglo-Normans. They moved northeast to the region between Ballinsaloe and Athlone, in County Roscommon--an extensive woodland that had been traditionally under the control of Hy-Many.

The O'Neachtains in County Roscommon

The general corridor between Ballinasloe and Athlone, between the River Suck and the River Shannon, was known as Na Feadha (woods) or the Fews. The O'Neachtains became chief of the Fews. Their land reportedly centered on Moynure, Carrickynaghtan and Creggane (Drum), near Athlone.

The O'Naughtons were not strangers to that area. The Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland (most commonly known as The Annals of the Four Masters) tell of an Uareirghe Ua Neachtain who was "one of the noble sages" and "head of the Culdees"--a religious order--at the monastery of Clonmacnoise, which was founded by St. Ciaran about 545 on the River Shannon south of Athlone. Clonmacnoise thrived as a center of learning from the 7th to the 12th century, and many Irish kings were buried there. That particular Ua Neachtain died in the year 1132. We also find references to his grandson, Uaireirghe, son of Mulmora, who died on the 10th of March, 1200, as well as to two William O'Nechtains in the Athlone area in 1237 and 1276. (To read The Annals of the Four Masters online, click Annals of The Four Masters)

On a wall inside an ancient church adjacent to Drum cemetery, southwest of Athlone, is a large inscription in Latin which reads in translation:

"O'Neachtain, the most noble Chieftain from the line of the great Hugonius, the Monarch of all Ireland, built this temple and dedicated it to St. Mary in the year of Our Lord 550. He is buried here under this temple and at last may his illustrious and most ancient family rest in peace."

The photo to the right of Jim Naughton standing next to the inscription was taken by his wife, Kathy Naughton, on May 20, 2001, and is reproduced here with their permission.

John O'Donovan properly questions the correctness of the date 550, since "O'Neachtain" was not used as a surname until the 10th Century--except for the original bearer of the name, "Neachtain," the eight in line from Fiachach Finn. It is more likely a mistaken date on a tombstone from the time when the O'Naghtens ruled the Drum area. The fact that the name, as shown in the photograph, is written "O'Naghten" rather than "O'Neachtain" adds further credence to the assumption that the inscription is of that later period, with the initial "1" simply taken for granted. Perhaps the most powerful evidence, which can be seen at the top of the inscription, is the O'Naghten Coat of Arms, which is shown in the enlargement to the right. It shows both O'Naghten family mottoes "Audax et Sagax" and "Cum Parvo Gladio Vici," which were established long after 550. (See more on the Coat of Arms, below.)

The land between Ballinasloe and Athlone continues to be described as "historic Naughton country." Local maps still show Carrickynaghtan (shown on map, just northeast of the enlarged name) southwest of Athlone. A history of the area tells us that the O'Neachtain family lived in Lisdillure (to the right on the map), near Drum, and that Carrickynaghton was where the chieftain of the Naughton Clan was installed. Irish Brehon Law required that the clan's leader be elected by the clan, rather than receive the title automatically from his father. The O'Neachtain clan chief was apparently elected and installed at Carrickynaghtan. A special platform called a "Coronation Stone" was normally used in installing the chieftain. In fact, "Carrickynaghtan"--originally "Carraig Ui Neachtain"-- means "the Naughton Rock or Stone." According to one history, the new chieftain would stand or place his foot on the ceremonial stone upon being elected to rule the clan. The local historian writes that it is not known what happened to the ceremonial stone of Carrickynaghtan.

Juan Tomás O'Naghten, who wrote an account of the O'Naghten line in the 1980s, confirms that the chief of the O'Neachtains/O'Naghtens originally lived in the townland of "Lissadulure" (Lisdillure--meaning "the Fort of the Foliage". Lisdillure continues to carry that name.) Some also lived in Moynure. The head of the family later moved to the nearby townland of Cluain Railzeac, or Clanrullagh (meaning "the meadow of the oaks").

One of the few remnants from that early time is St. Brigid's Holy Well in Drum, beautifully restored by the Drum Heritage Group in the early 1990s and depicted on the left from a photograph in the Drum Heritage Group's pamphlet. According to the 15th Century Book of Lecan, St. Brigid (450-525) had the children of Hy-Many brought to her various holy wells for baptism. This particular well was also famous for many cures.

During the following centuries, the various O'Naghtens and their clan most likely continued in their status as chief commanders of the Cavalry of Hy-Many and participated in the many wars and battles that were fought by the King of Connacht and Hy-Many against Anglo-Normans and rival Irish clans. A sense of the violent times can be seen in the following listing of just some of the battles mentioned in various annals and histories of the area, including The Annals of the Four Masters, John Hartman's History of Galway and Dennis Patrick O'Mullally's History of O'Mullally and Lally Clann:

--In 1316, the King of Connacht (Felim O'Conor) and leaders of Hy-Many and others in the region sought to drive the Normans under de Burgh and de Bermingham from Connacht but were defeated, with O'Conor and Hy-Many chief Tiege O'Kelly and others slain in the battle of Athenry. It was at this time that the King of England made de Bermingham Baron of Athenry.

--Probably in the 1330s, the Chief of southern Hy-Many (Eoghan O'Madden--a family related to the O'Kellys) defeated Burke (Lord Clanricarde) and seized Maonmagh for a period of time.

--In 1343, Hy-Many was defeated by the Burkes and Berminghams, and 11 sons of Irish chieftains were slain.

--Probably in the late 1370s, the Chief of Hy-Many (William Boy O'Kelly) recovered all of his former land, including Maonmagh.

--In 1375 and again in 1377, the King of Connacht (Rory O'Conor) defeated the Chief of Hy-Many, along with the Burkes.

--In 1385, the chieftains of Connacht invaded Hy-Many and burned the town of the son of Edmond O'Kelly.

--In 1387, according to the Annals of the Four Masters, "Cathal O'Naghtan was slain by O'Conor Roe."

--In 1391, Hy-Many was defeated by the reunited Burkes and Berminghams.

--In 1397, Hy-Many attacked O'Conor Don, the head of one of two rival O'Conor factions claiming the kingship of Connacht. That same year--and possibly in the same battle--the head of the O'Mullally clan was killed in battle against Sir Thomas Burke and Sir Walter Bermingham.

--In 1419, Hy-Many Chief William O'Kelly organized allied chieftains to drive out MacWilliam Burke, but the O'Kelly and many others were slain, as was MacWilliam Burke Clanrickard

--In 1468 and again in 1469, the Galway Burkes and allies attacked the Mayo Burkes and O'Kellys but were defeated.

Such conflict between Anglo-Normans and Irish--and among rival Irish--continued through the 15th and early 16th Century. By then, the descendants of the Anglo-Normans had become known as Anglo-Irish, since they had assumed much of the life style and customs of the Irish. But they were the dominant power in Ireland, controlling much of the land, as well as the local government, and their interests were often in conflict with those of the English Crown. This led at times to the local Irish turning to the Crown for support in their conflicts with the Anglo-Irish. For most of this time, however, the Crown was preoccupied with wars against the French and conflict among rival contenders to power in England and tended to leave Ireland in local Anglo-Irish hands. That was soon to change.

The English Conquest of Ireland

By the time of Henry VIII and his daughter, Queen Elizabeth, the English Monarchy was determined to reassert its authority over Ireland--partly for fear that Irish Catholics would side with France or Spain in their conflicts with England and perhaps serve as a base to overthrow the English Throne. In 1541, Henry VIII declared Crown ownership of all lands in Ireland to be regranted to loyal "Irish subjects." He also applied English law to Ireland and required both the Anglo-Irish and the native Irish to be available for military service for England. Anti-Catholic legislation was also imposed, and rebellious Irish had their lands confiscated.

To ensure loyalty to England, the Crown also implemented a policy of "planting" English settlers in Ireland. Thus began the long-lasting process of "plantations" in Ireland. Yet, Ireland remained in a chaotic state during much of this time, and the English policy of intensifying control in Ireland by imposing the Anglican religion, confiscating land and transplanting Englishmen aroused the fierce resistance of both Anglo-Irish and native Irish. Armed revolts became common. As a result, the local Irish landowners came under increasing pressure both from the English authorities imposing control and from rival Anglo-Irish landowners seeking to increase their own power and seize land by force. It was in such an environment that we find Sean O'Naghten, the last Chief of the O'Naghten Clan.

Sean (Shane) O'Naghten: The Last Chief of the O'Naghten Clan

In the latter part of the 16th Century, Sean O'Naghten was Chief of the O'Naghtens and living in Moynure, in the parish of Drum. In the fall of 1575, Sean's holdings had come under attack by the forces of the Burke family, who plundered his land. Apparently, this was merely one of a number of attacks he had suffered from the Burkes and the O'Rourke families. Other Hy-Many chiefs suffered similar attacks.

Timothy Cronin described it well in The Foundations of Landlordism in the Barony of Athlone, "Caught between the Burkes and the English, the chiefs of Ui Maine were now engaged in a struggle for survival." The Irish had to find ways to protect themselves from attacks by Anglo-Irish, their own Irish rivals and the English Crown. As it turned out, Sean O'Naghten proved fairly adept in protecting--and even enhancing--his position by adopting a policy of at least outwardly accommodating the English authorities and using powerful kinsmen to defend his position.

In dealing with the English, Sean O'Naghten apparently "anglicized" his name to John Norton and actively sought to gain English protection for his properties and position against the rival Burkes and O'Rourkes. His strategy clearly worked. On March 31, 1580, he, along with various O'Kellys, was appointed "justice and commissioner in the province of Connacht and Thomond, to take recognizances and do all things contained in the Queen's instructions and to hear and determine all actions." Sean O'Naghten--under the name John Norton--also held the lucrative and sought-after offices of Constable of the Castle of Athlone and of "Warder for Connacht," both paying substantial salaries. (A photograph of the restored Athlone Castle is shown below. The original can be found on Liz's Postcards from Ireland Website. Cronin's book is available on microfilm at the Longford/Westmeath Library, Mullingar, Co. Westmeath, or through Mormon Church Family History Centers on Microfilm #1279274.)

Cronin notes that John Norton was greatly helped by being a kinsman of Sir Edward Waterhouse, who was a member of the English Privy Council which had authority for most Irish affairs, and who also held the position of overseer of the River Shannon, with two galleys, to impose ordinances and fine offenders. As Cronin points out, "while it might be relatively easy to displace Sean O'Naughton, it would be rather more difficult to displace John Norton, who had the backing of his kinsman, Waterhouse." (We have no further information on how Sean O'Naghten was related to Waterhouse, although we did find a brother of Sir Edward Waterhouse, Charles, of "Baltra"--not further identified--in Ireland, married to an Ursula Andrew and having a son, Edward Waterhouse, in Ireland about 1565. And in a lease to "Edward Waterhous of Dublin esq." of the town and lands of Kilmacodrick and New grannge, dated August 17, 1582, a witness to the signing was "Dudley Norton," not further identified.)

O'Naghten's position did not prevent the O'Rourkes from continued attacks on his properties, however. And it appears that the local English authorities also felt the pressure of attacks from the Anglo-Irish who were seeking to protect their own power against English plans. The local English authorities thus encouraged "loyal" Irish subjects in their opposition to Anglo-Irish. In July, 1581, the local English representative, Nicholas Malby, sent "John Norton" to London with a letter of introduction to describe the attacks that O'Rourke had made on his properties the previous November.

In line with his strategy, Sean O'Naghten, along with the O'Kellys and other local Hy-Many chieftains, reached an agreement with Queen Elizabeth on August 6, 1585. In it, in exchange for retaining their landholdings and positions of power, O'Naghten and other Hy-Many chiefs agreed that they shall "behave themselves like good subjects,...put no ymposition or charge upon the inhabyters of the lands, and shall bring uppe their children after the English fashions, and in the use of the Englishe tounge." In essence, they became English subjects, joined the Anglican church--at least outwardly--and agreed to abolish their traditional Irish clan system. As a result, Sean O'Naghten became the last "the O'Naghten." His successors remained heads of the O'Naghten family but without the title of being the official chief of the O'Naghten clan.

It had become fairly common practice among the Irish landed class to have key members of families attest loyalty to the Crown as a means of protecting the landholdings and interests of the particular family. This may have been the basis for Sean O'Naghten's strategy. Perhaps because of the influence of "John Norton," we find other members of the O'Neachtain/O'Naghten family receiving pardons from the English Crown authorites. Those pardons also confirm that a fairly large number of O'Naghtens/O'Naughtons were local "landed gentry" or considered "gentlemen" during those years.

Cronin lists the following Naughtons as receiving pardons on 24 November 1581 in Fiant 3778 for alleged offenses against the Crown (although Cronin points out that the issuance of pardons may have simply been a means for local officials to obtain payment from people under suspicion).

1. Conchor O'Naighten, of Moynoire gent
2. Brian O'Neachtain, of Moynoire gent
3. Hugh O'Neachtain, of Moynoire gent
4. Brian O'Neachtain, of Moynoire gent
5. Henry McDonogho O'Neactain, of Cryghe, gent
6. Brian Carragh McDonoghe O'Neactain, gent
7. Manus McWm. Og O'Neatain, of Ardkennan
8. Nellaghlen McDermot Og O'Naighten, of Berrys, gent
9. Shane McDermot Og O'Naighten, of Berrys, gent
10. Donogh McHugh O'Naighten, of Berrys, gent
11. Henry McDonnogho O'Naighten, of Crane, gent
12. Wm. Bane O'Naighten, of Crane, gent

And in 1590, an additional 11 O'Naghtens were pardoned:

1. Connor O'Naghten, of Moynure
2. Hugh O'Naghten, of Kreoghone
3. Tadhg Mac Hugh O'Naghten, of Kreoghone
4. Donyle Karrogh O'Naghten, of Ardkeyvane
5. Conor Mac Manyse O'Naghten,of Ardkeyvane
6. Mylaghlin Mac Manyse O'Naghten, of Ardkeyvane
7. Teigh Mac Teig O'Naghten, of Adkeyvane
8. Teig Mac Shane MacEdmond O'Naghten, of Derrowkey
9. Moryah Mac James [O'Naghten], of Ballykreggan
10. Donagh O'Naghten, of Clonacke
11. Donagh Og O'Naghten, of Kiarrownikeny

Sean O'Naghten died on May 19, 1587. At the time, according to an enquiry of October 26, 1587, he possessed two quarters (a quarter was equivalent to 120 acres) in the Faes (Fews): one quarter in Moynewer (Moynure), with Carrigg-I-Naghten, and one quarter called Carroncriggan, along with an annual income from each quarter. Although his son, Conor (Cornellus) O'Naghten, occupied the two quarters after his father's death, technically the land reverted to the disposition of the Queen of England. In another enquiry on October 23, 1604, the Faes was described as containing 30 quarters of land (3,600 acres). On January 18, 1604, a grant was made to Jane Naghton (widow of Robert O'Naghton of Moynure, who was killed in the wars) of the wardship of John O'Naghton, Robert's son and heir.

The Uprising of 1641 and the Cromwellian Settlement

Unfortunately, English efforts to conquer Ireland intensified. In 1610, a full-scale plantation of Protestant English and Scottish settlers in the northern province of Ulster aroused strong Irish opposition, and further anti-Catholic measures and fears of additional "plantations" led to an Irish uprising in 1641 at the very time of a struggle for power between King Charles I and the English Parliament. Charles I's execution and the rise to power of Oliver Cromwell led to a devastating English war on Catholics in Ireland and the wholesale forced transplantation of Catholic landowners from eastern Ireland to Connaught Province, west of the Shannon River, replacing them with English settlers and others who had fought with Cromwell or helped finance the conquest of Ireland. According to E. M. Johnston in Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, Catholic ownership of land was as high as 60 percent in before Cromwell, about 1640, but they held only some 20 percent after Cromwell--essentially in Connaught Province--and the percentage dropped even more as a result of the penal laws. It is estimated the Cromwell's army killed 50% to 66% of the Irish natives. An additional 100,000 children were rounded up and sent to Barbados as slaves.

By 1657, only 13 O'Naughtons were listed as landowners in or near Drum Parish:

1. John, Drum Parish
2. Farriagh, Drum Parish
3. Thomas, Drum Parish
4. Henry, Drum Parish
5. Dermot Mac Tadhg, Drum Parish
6. Murtagh, Drum Parish
7. Onora, Drum Parish
8. Dermot Mac Brian, Drum Parish
9. Daniel, Drum Parish
10. Manus, Drum Parish
11. Donogh,Taughmaconnell Parish
12. Ellice, Taughmaconnell Parish
13. Katherine, Dysart Parish

The Book of Survey and Distribution for County Roscommon goes into greater detail on the actual O'Naughtons whose land was confiscated under Oliver Cromwell and who received their land, and those O'Naughtons who were later able to prove their loyalty to the Crown sufficiently to have land restored to them. Following is a list of land confiscated (also indicated is land later restored to a Naughton):

John McRobert Naughton: 90 acres in Crannagh, 270 Acres in Clongawna, 440 acres in Moynure
Farriagh Mcteige Naughton: 454 acres in Killmaccollmocke (restored to Donogh Naughton)
Nine Naughtons (Thomas, Henry, Dermot, MacTadhg, Murtagh, Onora, Dermot Mac Bryan, Daniel, Manus): 461 acres in Drum (restored to Laughlin Maule Naughton, Henry and Tadhg Naughton, and other families)
Four Naughtons (John [103], Faragh [126], Daniel [58], and Faragh [221]): 568 acres in Creagh and Shanvoy (restored to: Donnogh Naughton, Laughlin Maule Naughton, John Naughton, and others)
Laughlin Maule Naughton received 35 acres confiscated from others in Sheen
Katherine Naughton: 38 acres in Feevaghmore (restored to John Naughton "et als" 48 acres)

A number of Naughtons were also forcibly transplanted from their homeland in County Roscommon to other parts of County Roscommon or to County Galway where they were decreed new land:

Murtagh Boy O'Naughton, Flackane, decreed 103 acres in Ballymoe, County Galway
William Mac Donal O'Naughton, Knocknenowle, decreed 100 acres in Balymoe, County Galway
Mutagh Boy Naghten, Flughane, decreed 103 acres in Ballintober, County Roscommon
Onora Naughton, alias Brannagh, decreed 77 acres in Moycarnan, County Roscommon
Bryan Mac Shane Naughton, Carrowkena, decreed 40 acres in Moycarnan, County Roscommon
Thomas O'Naughton, Lisdillure, decreed 358 acres in Moycarnan, County Roscommon
Mortagh Boy O'Naghton, Flughan, decreed 103 acres in Roscommon, County Roscommon

The "Thomastown" Naughtons

As previsouly mentioned, the head of the O'Naghten clan had lived in Lisdillure but later moved to Clanrullagh. That estate was renamed in the late 18th Century "Thomastown," most likely by Thomas Mahon O'Naghten, and the entire estate became known as Thomastown Park. During their most expansive time, the land controlled by the O'Naghtens in the Barony of Athlone was bounded on the east and west by the rivers Shannon and Suck, with its northern boundary apparently a line between the two rivers beginning just south of Athlone and its southern boundary a line roughly parallel, beginning north of Ballinasloe. It comprised Ardcarne, Beagh, Bealrean, Carrig-I-Naghten, Carrron Creggan, Cartonferagh, Clanrullagh, Clonark, Clonellan, Corrinroe, Cranagh, Ureagh, Drum, Feahill, Feature, Gortaphenna, Cortmore, Infahfaddah, John's Land, Killine, Kiltoom, where there were ruins of an old O'Naghten castle, Laughlinboole, Littleton, Lissadulure, Marymount, Moyntwer, Moynure, Shegan, Taghduffe, Thormhill, West-park, Moycarnan, and other lands. In the late 19th Century, the Naughton lands consisted of 4,800 acres. (The "old O'Naghten castle" apparently referred to the fortified residence--including a moat and dike--of John McRobert O'Naghten in Ballycreggan, Kiltoom, a kinsman of Thomas O'Naghten of Thomastown. His land was confiscated in 1636.)

Mary Naughten wrote in her account of the Naughtons of Connacht that the Thomastown Naughtons' surname was pronounced "Natton" locally. Those Naughtons included some illustrious members. Following are some of the highlights of that family line as described by Edmond O'Naghten and, more recently, by Juan Tomás O'Naghten (Edmond noting that "all intermarried among themselves"]:

Aongus Neacta ne Cahadh Geamin O'Neachtain--in Gaelic "Aongus O'Neachtain, who fought the battles with his cousins"--may have gained that description from a period about 1392, when Toirdhealbhach Og O'Conchobhair Donn fought against the Hy-Many and seized and occupied the Fews, resulting in the Fews being divided between two rival branches of the Neachtain family.

Aongus Teige Mor ne Cahadh O'Naghten, his second son, was particularly famous for being the chief commander of his father's forces and for his bravery in battle. His name means, in Gaelic, "Aongus Teige the Great of the Battle." According to Edmond O'Naghten, during a particular battle between rival forces claiming a principality called Clan Neacta Glen a Gainenwhomb, Aongus broke his sword while being attacked by two warrior chiefs. Drawing his dagger, he rushed boldly between their long swords and killed both. Such bravery routed the enemy forces and won the battle. Afterward, the local princes and chiefs, with the approval of Aongus's father, declared that he and his descendants should ever after rule that principality and that they should add to their Coat of Arms two long swords and a dagger between them, with the motto: "Cum Parvo Gladio Vici" ("I Conquer With a Small Sword"), in addition to using the traditional O'Naghten crest. (More on the O'Naghten Coat of Arms later.) Aongus married the daughter of O'Kelly, Prince of Aghrim.

Thomas Ban Baniere O'Naghten, the only son of Loughlin Og Fercantad O'Naghten, married a daughter of O'Kelly, descended from the Prince of Hy-Many. He became head of the family at the time of the Cromwellian Settlement and was said to have "lost a considerable property by Oliver Cromwell." His son, Loughlin Mioll (Maule) O'Naghten, played an important role in the future course of the O'Naghten family.

Loughlin Mioll (Maule) O'Naghten lived in Creagh and Clanrullagh. About 1636, he obtained Tumsurra and other properties that had earlier belonged to Sean O'Naghten. And after the 1641 rebellion, as we have seen, he obtained additional properties in Drum Parish and elsewhere in the Barony of Athlone. He married Eleonor Dillon, daughter of Gerald Dillon of the house of the Viscount Dillon of Lesine, County Roscommon. They had two sons, Edmund and Thomas.

When the Catholic James II became King of England in 1685, he tried to reverse the anti-Irish laws by allowing Irish Catholics to occupy important public offices, filling the Irish Parliament in Dublin with Irish, and creating an Irish Army to support him. But he was challenged in 1688, when the rebellious Parliament invited James' son-in-law, William of Orange, to assume the English throne. James sought French aid and the help of his Catholic Irish subjects, and moved his forces to Ireland in the hope of using his loyal Irish Army and French supporters to regain the throne. The English civil war that resulted was decided in a series of battles in Ireland, especially the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 (after which James II fled to France) and the battles of Aughrim and Limerick in 1691.

Loughlin Mioll O'Naghten raised a regiment at his own expense to support King James II and fought actively as a Captain of his forces against William of Orange. Fighting with him were his two sons, Thomas and Edmund (Edward), as part of that regiment, with the ranks, respectively, of Captain and Ensign. The Irish and French fought valiantly in the Battle of Aughrim, County Galway, in July 1691 but lost some 3,000-7,000 men and were forced to retreat. Loughlin and his sons, along with some 100 officers and men from his regiment, were able to make their way to Limerick where they joined the garrison to defend the city against the siege by the Williamite forces. But it was the last battle of the war, and a peace agreement was negotiated. As Edmond O'Naghten described it, the garrison of Limerick so bravely defended the city that they obtained "the most honorable conditions for themselves and their successors and thereby preserved their properties." The final Treaty of Limerick was very generous in allowing those willing to accept the supremacy of King William to retain their landholdings, while those who refused were allowed to sail to France with their men and their families. Some 12,000 Irish went to France, many joining the French Army to continue fighting the English on the continent. They became known in Irish history as "the Wild Geese."

Thomas O'Naghten, Loughlin's elder son, succeeded his father at head of the House of O'Naghten. He lived at Creagh and Clanrullagh, and married Mary O'Dowling, the daughter of Captain Thomas O'Dowling, of Rathpeak, County Roscommon, described as "an ancient princely family possessed of a very ancient estate to which many royalties and dignities were annexed." Thomas had been able to take advantage of the early liberal policies of King James II and served as Governor of County Roscommon in 1688. Following the Battle of Limerick, the English authorities extended to him the benefits of the Treaty of Limerick. Thomas and his wife had seven children, the eldest being named Laughlin O'Naghten. (Other children were John [who had two sons, Thomas, who served on the "Boreas" in the English Navy in 1759, and Luke] and Catherine [who married Frances Heverin in 1743], Mary [who married a Kelly], Eliner, Fergus [who married Mable... and had three children: Thomas, Mary, who married a Fuller, and ...Naghten, who married ... Brabazon] and John Dillon O'Naghten [also known as simply "Dillon"] who married Margaret Lucy O'Kelly, daughter of Mathew O'Kelly of Killahan, County Roscommon, and had three children: Juan O'Naghten y O'Kelly [more about below], Thomas, Mathew and Mabella, who married Redmond O'Fallon, of Athlone, the son of John O'Fallon of Drummullin). Thomas died in 1740. (Edward O'Naghten, Thomas's second son, married the "niece of the illustrious family O'Neill of Shane's Castle, in County Antrim", and had one son, Laughlin, who married Anna O'Madden, of the princely family related to the O'Kellys, and had three sons: Thomas, Edward, and William "Kelly" O'Naghten, who emigrated to the Austro-Hungarian Empire and became Baron O'Naghten--see below.)

Laughlin O'Naghten, Thomas's first son and heir, became an attorney and married Catherine O'Kelly, of Cargins, County Roscommon, in 1728. Her family was descended from the ruling family of Hy-Many. They had six children, the eldest son being Thomas O'Naghten. (The other children were Edmond, Ignatius [who married Mary Burke in 1776 and had two children: Thomas and Catherine, who married Charles Campbell, Captain of the 26th Regiment of Foot], Elizabeth, Mary [who married James Moore] and Elinor.) Laughlin died in June, 1757. Laughlin's marriage to the daughter of a wealthy family brought new prosperity to the family, and it may have been during this period that construction began on a new O'Naghten residence--later known as Thomastown Park House--which remained the principal home of the O'Naghten family until the family line died out in 1944 and the house was eventually demolished by the Irish Government.

There are several slightly different versions of the "Naughton" Coat of Arms. This is not surprising since a "coat of arms" was originally a means of recognition on the battlefield and could be changed by the family chieftain. According to both Edmond and Juan Tomás O'Naghten, the oldest Coat of Arms of the senior branch of the family was described as follows:

Three falcons on a red background, with wings folded, in their natural color, placed in two rows: the top of two, the second of one. The color red stood for bravery. The Crest was a falcon on a wreath, with wings folded. The family Motto was: "Audax et Sagax" (Translated variously as "Daring and Wise" and "Bold and Shrewd").

According to Edmond O'Naghten, those were the arms cut in stone over Latimor Castle and Gate in the town of Loughrea until they were taken down sometime in the second half of the 18th Century. They were also given by Edmond O'Naghten in his pedigree of the family. Gerald Slevin, Chief Herald of Ireland, told Juan Tomás O'Naghten that he was inclined to believe the birds were originally hawks and not falcons, since the hawk was a bird used by the Irish from very olden times in their arms, often indicating heroic accomplishments, since the Gaelic word for "hawk" also meant "hero." The three hawks in the arms could possibly stand for the Three Collas, from whom the O'Neachtains descended as the senior line.

As already related, a modified version of the coat of arms was earned by Aongus Teige Mor ne Cahadh O'Naghten in the 15th Century through his feat of arms. It could be described as follows:

In addition to the three falcons on a red background, a second image, on a green background, consisted of three silver swords, with golden handles, two crossed, pointed upward,surmounted by the third, shorter sword, pointing downward where the other two swords crossed. (The coat of arms depicted above may be slightly incorrect in that the third sword does not appear shorter than the other two. The coat depicted in black and white to the right is more accurate in portraying the short sword.) The color green was symbolic of youth, appropriately combined with red to symbolize the bravery of the youthful warrior. A second Motto, "Cum Parvo Gladio Vici" ("I Conquer With a Small Sword"), was added to "Audax et Sagax": the first one over the Crest, the second one under the Shield.

Those arms were cut in a 16th Century stone tablet in the old church of Drum burial ground. They were also depicted in a parchment prepared by Thomas Mahon O'Naghten, son of Edmond, for the Barons O'Naghten of Hungary.

Captain Thomas O'Naghten quartered the O'Naghten Coat of Arms following the battle of Limerick to give a more anglicized appearance: the falcons on a red background in the top left and lower right quarters, and the three crossed swords on a green background in the other two quarters. These are the arms traditionally identified with the Naughton family and which are shown in the depiction on this page, the original of which may be seen on The Coats Of Arms of Ireland... Website.

O'Donovan, in describing the O'Naghten Coat of Arms, mentions that the Crest has "A side helmet, over which a hawk alighting." That description appears well depicted in the more elaborate black and white drawing above and the drawing of the Naughton Coat of Arms on the left, courtesy of a Naughton family member with Naughton contacts in both County Roscommon and County Galway.

The Barons O'Naghten of Hungary and their descendants were granted a slightly different Coat of Arms by King Francois I of Hungary on March 1, 1816, but based heavily on the Irish O'Naghten arms.

Clan Colla DNA

The Clan Donald USA Genetic Project has identified the genetic signature of
Colla Uais, father of Dalriada. Clan Donald has historically considered
itself as a branch of Clan Colla and as children of Conn. Colla was High
King of Ireland who seized Ulster and then took his followers to Scotland
around 325AD. Colla's descendants Fergus, Loarn and Angus (sons of Erc) were
the principal foundation lines reestablishing the Scottish kingdom of
Dalriada around 465AD. Colla was believed to be a great great great grandson
of Conn of the Hundred Battles, High King of Ireland circa 150AD. A
predicted six mutation spread within approximately 1500 years has identified
MacDonalds (MacDonnells) descended from the kindred of Colla in both the
Irish and Scottish branches of Clan Donald. Not all Clan Donalds are
descended from Colla but the identification of this signature is a major
advance which supports the accuracy of ancient Irish and Scottish oral
histories and genealogies.

Project Director, Mark MacDonald, stated:

"We have built on the data of existing genetic projects including the
MacGregors, gaelic Livingstons, and Campbells to reach a common goal:
understanding the genealogy and history of the Scottish highlands and its
historic link to Ireland. I believe the Y-chromosome DNA signature of Colla
is:

393 390 19 391 385A 385B 426 388
439 389-1 392 389-2

13 24 14 10 11 14
12 12 12 13 13 30

458 459A 459B 455 454 447 437 448
449 464A

18 9 10 11 11 25
15 19 30 15

464B 464C 464D

15 17 17

We have identified this signature and expected close mutations throughout
the highlands and islands and also in Clan Colla from Ireland. We invite
existing genetic projects and genetic researchers for descendants of Colla
and for other Ulster and Connacht lines to join with us in joint research to
further explore this significant finding. Clan Donald's database may be
confidentially examined by prospective joint research participants. In the
meantime, Clan Donald hopes that publication of this genetic signature will
assist other Scottish and Irish studies in understanding their data."

Scottish and Irish clans historically descended from Colla Uais include: (a)
Scotland: MacDonald, MacGregor, MacGillivray, MacEachern, MacMillian,
MacKinnon, MacQuarrie, Campbell, MacPhee, MacInnes; (b) Ireland: Maguire,
MacMahon, MacManus, Agnew, Alexander, Boylan, Cassidy (who were chiefs of
Coole), Connolly (chiefs in Fermanagh), Duffy, Hale, Hanratty (anglicized
Enright), Keenan of Fermanagh, Leahy in Galway, MacCabe of Monaghan and
Caven, MacCann of Clan brassil, MacEvoy, MacVeagh, MacVeigh (anglicized form
of MacUais) in West Meath, Magee in Down and Antrim, MacKenna in Monaghan,
MacOscar (anglicized MacCusker), MacTully, and MacGrath in Fermanagh,
MacNeny (anglicized Bird), MacRory (anglicized Rogers), MacSheehy, Madden,
Norton, O'Carroll, O'Flanagan, O'Hanlon, O'Hart in Tara, and MacQuillan in
Antrim.

Mark E. MacDonald

Director of Clan Donald USA Genetic Project

And National Historian for Clan Donald USA

325 North St. Paul Street, Suite 2400

Dallas, Texas 75201

Direct Dial: (214) 922-9050

'….based upon ...some 10,000 adult Irish males, ...this huge and amply documented series was measured by Mr. C. Wesley Dupertuis under the auspices of the Division of Anthropology of Harvard University, and with the close coöperation of both governments in Ireland. The data have been tabulated and seriated in the Harvard Anthropometric Laboratory, under the direction of Professor Earnest A. Hooton....The composite Irishman, representing the mean of ten thousand of his countrymen, is 35 years old, 172 cm. tall, and weighs 157 pounds. He is well built, muscular, and large boned, with shoulders 39 cm. broad, and a trunk length which is 53.3 per cent of his total height. His arms are long, and his span is 105.3 per cent of his stature. So far, his bodily dimensions and proportions might be matched among western Norwegians, Icelanders, many Swedes, Livs, and Finns of Finland. His head is large, for Ireland has consistently the largest head size of any equal land area in Europe. The three principal vault dimensions of his head, 196 mm. by 154 mm. by 125 mm., give him the mesocephalic cephalic index of nearly 79, and the moderately hypsicephalic length-height index of 64. His cranial vault, like his body, could again be matched among the larger-headed peoples of Scandinavia and the Baltic lands...He is comparable in these respects to the western Norwegians, to the Livs, and to some of the Finns….. Let us now examine the pigment characters and morphological traits of the Irish, both as a total group and regionally. In the first place, the Irish are almost uniquely pale skinned when unexposed, untanned parts of the body, are observed. Out of 10,000 men, over 90 per cent had skins of the pale pink shade represented by von Luschan #3, while not a single individual was darker than von Luschan #11..The pale Irish skin, where exposed to the sun, shows a marked inclination to freckling. Forty per cent of the entire group are freckled to some extent; in Kerry the ratio rises as high as 60 per cent…..The hair color of the Irish is predominantly brown; black hair accounts for less than 3 per cent of the total, while the ashen series (Fischer #20-26) amounts to but one-half of one per cent. Forty per cent have dark brown hair (Fischer #4-5); 35 per cent have medium brown (Fischer #7-9); reddish brown hues total over 5 per cent (closest to Fischer #6, #10), while clear reds (Fischer #1-3) run higher than 4 per cent. The rest, some 15 per cent, fall into a light brown to golden blond category (Fischer #11-19). Thus the hair color of the Irish is darker than that of most regions of Scandinavia, but not much darker than Iceland; it is notably different from Nordic hair, as exemplified by eastern Norwegians and Swedes, in its almost total lack of ash-blondism. The rufous hair color pigment reaches a world maximum here; not so much in reds as in the prevalance of golden hues in blond and brown shades. The lightest hair is found in the Aran Islands, where the commonest shade is, nevertheless, medium brown; in the southwestern counties there are more goldens and at the same time more dark-browns than in Ireland as a whole, while the Great Plain runs fairest of all. Red hair, with a regional maximum of 8 per cent, is commonest in Ulster, rarest in Waterford and Wexford.In the proportion of pure light eyes, Ireland competes successfully with the blondest regions of Scandinavia. Over 46 per cent of the total group has pure light eyes, and of these all but 4 per cent are blue. Very light-mixed eyes (equivalent to Martin #13-14) account for another 30 per cent, while less than one-half of one per cent have pure brown. There is probably no population of equal size in the world which is lighter eyed, and blue eyed, than the Irish. The almost total absence of gray eyes corresponds to the equal paucity of ash-blond hair. Compared to eastern Norway, Sweden, and Finnic and Baltic groups, the eye color is disproportionately light in comparison to hair color.

John J Norton
b 1914 Boston Mass.

151530 mmnorton1@earthlink.net